Human–predator–prey conflicts: ecological correlates, prey losses and patterns of management
Introduction
Conflicts between humans and predators are the product of socio-economic and political landscapes. They arise primarily because of competition between people and predators for shared, limited resources. The conflicts can be particularly controversial when the resources concerned have economic value and the predators involved are legally protected (Thirgood et al., 2000a). Many predators kill prey species that humans hunt, harvest or farm for consumption or recreation and occasionally they may even kill people (Caro and Fitzgibbon, 1992; Thirgood et al., 2000b; Sillero-Zubiri and Laurenson, 2001). While humans and predators have co-existed for millennia, the frequency of conflicts has grown in recent decades, largely because of the exponential increase in human populations and the resultant expansion of human activities (Woodroffe, 2000; Conover, 2002).
Despite major advances in understanding predator–prey dynamics and competitive interactions in the last 20 years (Krebs, 2001), there has been little attempt to integrate this knowledge into the emerging field of human–wildlife conflict management (Conover, 2002). Historical attempts to manage conflicts with predators, often in the context of agriculture and game resources, have centred on an array of decisions biased towards social and economic values of stakeholders which, in many cases, have lead to a range of negative effects on predator populations (Weber and Rabinowitz, 1996; Estes, 1996; Berger et al., 2001). However, as conservation issues increasingly occupy socio-political agendas and changing attitudes favour non-lethal approaches to wildlife management, it is clear that a shift is required, from decisions based primarily on competing economic interests, to those based on the evolving interplay between the ecological system and the socio-political system.
Most animals live in species-rich communities, yet most human–predator conflicts are described in terms of direct effects arising from simple 1-predator–1-prey interactions. The perception has been that a single predator directly reduces the density of prey available to humans and this can be prevented by removing predators from the system (Yodzis, 2001). This simplistic and intrinsically symmetric view of the predator–prey system is a simplification of the trophic interactions in complex ecosystems. As predator conflicts do occur in real ecological communities, this oversight may partially underpin the failure of predator control and the rapid and widespread decline and extinction of many predator species. Because population interactions, including predator control, propagate over long and short pathways through a food web, it may thus be useful to examine qualitative and quantitative ecological descriptors of the communities in which predator conflicts have arisen.
The primary objective of this paper is to explore published information on human–predator–prey conflicts involving livestock and game species, assess the important ecological and social variables associated with these conflicts, and identify patterns which may be related to the success or failure of management. The paper begins with a brief review of human–predator–prey conflicts involving livestock and game species. Then, we summarize for each documented conflict, a set of commonly cited, basic ecological descriptors of the habitats and wildlife and affiliated socio-economic factors. These include geographic location and habitat descriptors, the corresponding diversity in and structure of the managed and extended food web, and the magnitude or potential for direct and indirect effects in the community at issue. These are supplemented by basic social factors such as human population density, income level and management regime in the conflict. For the set of conflicts where these data are available, we examine statistically the relationship between the ecological descriptors, the social descriptors and the extent of predator based losses and management strategies.
Section snippets
Overview of conflicts
Human–wildlife conflicts that centre on livestock and game species are two of the most well-known predator control problems worldwide. The conflicts tend to be long running and are of considerable economic importance in many parts of the world. They share the common characteristic of a well-defined regime of management of land, human and animal resources. Moreover, their geographic locations ensure that examples exist from a wide range of ecosystem types.
Methods
We surveyed the management, conservation and ecology literature relevant to predator control, game and livestock management around the world. This involved an extensive search of web databases including the ISI Web of Science, European Environment Agency, Natural History Museum, Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment, Conservation International, USA Department of Agriculture, The World Bank Group, CIESIN and the United Nations Environment Programme.
For each study located, we
General study details
The total latitudinal range of case studies was 34°S–67°N with 8 tropical or subtropical (0–35°), 13 temperate (36–55°) and seven boreal (56–67°) sites. Studies were conducted on all continents except Antarctica: North America (4), South America (2), Eurasia (17), Africa (4), and Australia (1) (Table 1). Predator–livestock conflicts dominated the literature, with a strong European bias. Several studies focused on lynx predation of sheep and reindeer. Most predator–game literature also came from
Discussion
One of the most common requests in the conservation management literature is for more information on the ecological details of a particular problem (Hoogesteijn et al., 1993; Linnell et al., 2001; Ormerod, 2002). This is true across a wide range of conservation issues, from endangered and invasive species to predator control and classic natural resource management. In this study, we have focused on identifying and analysing the quantity, quality and importance of ecological information relating
Acknowledgements
We thank John Harwood for constructive comments on an earlier draft. Adrian Treves, John Polisar, Beatriz Arroyo, Javier Viñuela, and Marcelo Mazzolli provided helpful clarifications of their data. Part of this research was funded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council.
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- 1
Present address: Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Western Bank, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK.
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Present address: Frankfurt Zoological Society, FZS Regional Office in the Serengeti, P.O. Box 14935, Arusha, Tanzania.