Livestock predation by endangered African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) in northern Kenya
Introduction
Virtually all of the world’s large carnivore species have experienced major declines and range contractions in the last hundred years (Linnell et al., 2001, Woodroffe, 2001), such that many are now considered globally or regionally endangered (IUCN, 2002). Conflict with farmers over livestock depredation has been a major cause of these declines (Treves and Karanth, 2003). Indeed, killing of animals considered predators of livestock has driven the extinction of several species, including the Falkland Island wolf (Dusicyon australis, in 1876; Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri, 2004), the Guadelupe caracara (Polyborus lutosus, in 1900; Fuller, 2000) and the thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus, in 1930; Paddle, 2000).
The population consequences of predator control can extend deep into protected areas. Livestock predation usually occurs outside reserves, in human dominated landscapes; however, because most large carnivore species range widely, animals killed outside reserves may in fact have spent most of their time inside reserves (Stander, 1990, Forbes and Theberge, 1996). This results in a powerful edge effect, strong enough to cause the extinction of wide-ranging carnivores in all but the largest protected areas (Woodroffe and Ginsberg, 1998, Woodroffe and Ginsberg, 2000). Hence, effective protection of large carnivores is likely to demand resolution of conflicts with farmers, even when reserves are the mainstay of local conservation efforts.
African wild dogs (Lycaon pictus) are one of the world’s most endangered large carnivore species, extirpated from 25 of the 39 countries where they formerly occurred (Fanshawe et al., 1997). The world population is estimated at fewer than 6000, and is still declining (Woodroffe et al., 2004). Conflict with people has been a major cause of this decline (Woodroffe and Ginsberg, 1999), and is an ongoing problem: shooting and poisoning together accounted for the deaths of 26% of 196 adult wild dogs that died while under study in protected areas (Woodroffe et al., 2004). Deliberate killing of animals that range beyond reserve borders may help to explain why wild dogs have disappeared from all but the largest unfenced reserves – wild dog populations require reserves in excess of 3500 km2 to have even a 50% chance of persistence, an area far larger than that required by other African carnivores (Woodroffe and Ginsberg, 1998). Hence, effective conservation of wild dogs, both inside and outside protected areas, demands resolution of conflicts with farmers.
Wild dogs’ true impact on local people’s livelihoods has only rarely been assessed. Ranchers interviewed in South Africa and Zimbabwe ranked wild dogs as the least popular predator species, disliked even more than spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta), jackals (Canis mesomelas), lions (Panthera leo) and leopards (Panthera pardus; Lindsey, 2003). Livestock farmers’ principal complaint was that wild dogs affected their income by killing livestock (Lindsey, 2003). However, some field studies have suggested that such negative attitudes might not reflect wild dogs’ true impact. An investigation of wild dog predation on livestock in Zimbabwe suggested that farm workers’ claims were exaggerated, with wild dogs truly responsible for fewer than half of reported attacks (Rasmussen, 1999). Both in Zimbabwe and southern Kenya, wild dogs appeared to ignore livestock where wild prey were available (Rasmussen, 1999, Fuller and Kat, 1990). Based on these observations, Woodroffe and Ginsberg (1997) speculated that wild dogs might prey on livestock only where wild prey were depleted.
Resolving conflicts between farmers and wild dogs is likely to involve a combination of wildlife management, livestock husbandry, and education (Woodroffe et al., 1997, Rasmussen, 1999, Ogada et al., 2003). To provide the information needed to underpin such conservation activities, the World Conservation Union’s Canid Specialist Group called for research on conflicts between people and wild dogs to be carried out “as a matter of urgency” (Ginsberg and Woodroffe, 1997). Here, we present preliminary findings of a study established to meet this need. We evaluate the true extent of wild dog depredation on livestock, and compare patterns of depredation with the availability of wild prey.
Section snippets
Study area and methods
This study was carried out in northern Kenya, in Laikipia District (37°2′ E, 0°6′ N), and parts of neighbouring Samburu, Isiolo and Baringo Districts, covering ≈5700 km2 (Fig. 1). The area is mainly semi-arid bush land and savanna, used for subsistence pastoralism and commercial ranching, as well as for tourism and small-scale agriculture. Within the study area, some properties are owned by private individuals, while others (group ranches) are communally owned. None of the area is formally
Results
All attacks involved free-ranging livestock; wild dogs did not attack livestock held inside bomas (night-time corrals). The majority of the confirmed attacks on livestock (50 of 56) involved sheep or goats, with only 6 attacks on cattle. On average, wild dogs killed 3.2 (SD 2.4, range 1–13) sheep or goats per confirmed attack. The mean number of cattle killed on confirmed attacks was 1.3 (SD 0.5, range 1–2). All cases of multiple killing of cattle involved calves rather than adult animals.
Discussion
Our results show that, across most of the study area, wild dog predation was extremely uncommon, with approximately one attack reported per 1000 km2 of occupied wild dog habitat per year. Given this very low level of depredation, it is important to stress that none of the area is formally protected, and livestock were available to wild dogs throughout the region. Aerial censuses show that the area supports ≈15 cattle and 45 sheep or goats per km2, with livestock greatly outnumbering wild
Acknowledgements
For help with data collection, we would like to thank Benson Minyarit and Jackson Lorkitama of Kijabe Community Trust, Leonard Chenguli and Peter Mengich of the Kaptuya Conservancy, Daniel Lomoe, David Masere, Joseph Musiany, Nteere Gitonga and Symon Ntunyoi of the Laikipia Wildlife Forum, and Sinyati Lesowapir, Julius Leturuka, Lkekui Lelesit, John Katarin Lenanyankera and Tom Letiwa of the Namunyak Wildlife Conservation Trust. GIS coverages were provided by the Laikipia Research Programme and
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Present address: Department of Natural Resource Conservation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA 01003, USA.